PSY 100 – General Psychology
Lecture Guide 8: Learning
Michael L. Thomas, PhD
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1 Time to Learn!
Learning is defined as a relatively permanent change in behavior due to experience. This process underlies how we adapt to our environments, develop skills, and respond to rewards or punishments. When most people think of learning, they think about acquiring new information—like facts and dates. While that certainly involves learning, the concept is much broader. As an example, if you are able, view the image below and listen to the audio clip.
Many people have a negative emotional reaction to alarm clocks, even when there’s no real reason in the present moment. Hearing or seeing an alarm clock now doesn’t mean you have to wake up, you’re late, or you need to leave the comfort of your bed. And yet, it may still provoke discomfort. Why?
This is an example of classical conditioning. Over time, we learn to associate the sound or sight of an alarm clock with unpleasant experiences—rushed mornings, sleep interruptions, or anxiety about the day ahead. Because of this learned association, the mere presence of the stimulus (the alarm clock) can evoke negative feelings, even without any current relevance
There are two main types of learning that we’ll cover in this lecture. The first is called associative learning, in which two or more stimuli or events become linked in the mind. This type of learning often involves forming stimulus–response associations based on experience. The two subtypes of associative learning are classical conditioning and operant conditioning.
The second general type of learning is called cognitive learning, which involves acquiring new information or behaviors by observing others, reflecting on events, or through language and instruction.
2 Classical Conditioning
Much of what we know about learning comes from the behaviorists. Remember that behaviorists are concerned with observable behavior.
Ivan Pavlov (1849–1936) was a Russian physiologist whose primary research focused on digestion. While studying dogs’ digestive processes, he noticed that the dogs began to salivate at the mere sight of a food dish.
While most dogs will salivate when they see food or when food is placed in their mouth, Pavlov observed that some dogs began salivating simply in response to a bowl. Pavlov had stumbled upon associative learning, and proceeded to conduct multiple experiments pairing food with other stimuli, such as lights or tones.
In Pavlov’s classic experiment, a small tube (fistula) was surgically implanted into the dog’s salivary gland to measure salivation. A pan was placed in front of the dog, and meat powder was delivered automatically. Additionally, a neutral stimulus—such as a bell—was presented alongside the food.
The terminology used to describe this type of experiment is as follows:
- Unconditioned Stimulus (US): A stimulus that naturally triggers a response without prior learning—meat powder in this case.
- Unconditioned Response (UR): The unlearned, automatic response to the US—salivating in response to the meat powder.
- Conditioned Stimulus (CS): A previously neutral stimulus (e.g., a bell) that, after being paired with the US, triggers a response.
- Conditioned Response (CR): The learned response to the CS—salivating when the bell is rung, even without food.
Through repeated pairings of the CS (bell) with the US (meat powder), Pavlov demonstrated that the dog would eventually salivate in response to the bell alone. This process, known as classical conditioning, shows how human and non-human animals can learn associations between stimuli in their environment.
Take a look at Figure 3 below and see if you can describe each panel using the terms US, UR, CS, and CR.
What did you come up with? You should have described panel (1) as the UR to the US, panel (2) as the presentation of the neutral stimulus (which will become the CS), panel (3) as the pairing of the CS with the US, and panel (4) as the CR to the CS.
🔔 Fun Fact: Although Pavlov’s work is almost always associated with a ringing bell, he rarely (if ever) used one. Instead, he more commonly used metronomes, buzzers, whistles, and tuning forks as conditioned stimuli. The idea of a bell became popular later as a simplified way to describe the experiment because it’s easy to visualize and familiar in everyday life.
2.1 Generalization and Discrimination
John B. Watson and Rosalie Rayner famously demonstrated classical conditioning in humans through their work with an infant nicknamed Little Albert. In their study, they conditioned Albert to develop a fear response by pairing a loud, startling noise (produced by striking a metal bar) with the presence of a white rat. Over time, Albert began to exhibit fear (crying, withdrawal) simply upon seeing the rat, even without the noise—an example of a conditioned emotional response.
The silent video below is an actual recording from Watson and Rayner’s experiments with Little Albert. In the beginning, the infant is shown a variety of animals—including a monkey, dog, white rat, and rabbit—and initially shows no signs of fear. However, after repeated pairings of a loud, startling noise (created by striking a metal bar) with the presentation of the white rat (not shown in the video), Albert begins to show signs of fear in response to the rat alone. This learned fear response is an example of classical conditioning.
This experiment also highlights two additional concepts: generalization and discrimination.
Generalization occurs when a person responds to stimuli that are similar—but not identical—to the CS. For example, at the end of the video, Little Albert shows fear in response to Watson wearing a fluffy mask.
Discrimination involves learning to distinguish between similar stimuli when only one is consistently paired with the US. Initially, a person might respond the same way to both stimuli, but over time, they learn to differentiate based on consequences.
A familiar example of generalization is seen in children who haven’t yet learned to discriminate between similar-looking creatures. In movies, for instance, a child might see a monster and excitedly exclaim “Doggy!” because they haven’t yet learned to distinguish between dogs and other furry animals.
🧠 Clinical Insight:
Phobias offer a clear example of classical conditioning applied to real-life emotional responses. A phobia is an intense, irrational fear of a specific object or situation. Phobias can develop when a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a traumatic or aversive event. For instance, repeated media portrayals of clowns as creepy may condition someone to fear clowns (coulrophobia).
2.2 Limits of Classical Conditioning
Early behaviorists, and empiricists more broadly, argued that humans are born as blank slates and can be shaped into anything through learning. However, this view has not held up well in the face of modern research.
One example is taste aversion, a type of classical conditioning. If a taste is paired with sickness, an animal will likely associate the taste with the illness. However, it is unlikely to associate light or sound with sickness. Conversely, animals are more likely to associate pain (e.g., electric shock) with stimuli like light or sound, not with taste.
This suggests that humans and other animals come preprogrammed to form certain associations more readily than others (i.e., biological preparedness). In particular, internal stimuli (e.g., illness) are more likely to be associated with taste and external stimuli (e.g., shock) are more likely to be associated with light or sound.
Also, in classical conditioning, we rely on an animal’s innate responses—that is, UR. If we want an animal to learn behaviors beyond its natural reflexes, we must use operant conditioning instead.
Behaviorist perspectives often underemphasized the role of cognition in classical conditioning. However, research shows that predictability plays a critical role. It’s not enough to pair two stimuli in a random or inconsistent order (e.g., A–B, B–A, A–B); for classical conditioning to be effective, the association must be reliable and consistent (e.g., A–B, A–B, A–B).
Moreover, predictable stimuli tend to produce more manageable emotional responses. For instance, if a child is told a shot won’t hurt—but then it does—they may develop generalized anxiety around medical settings. In contrast, when the child receives a clear and honest cue that discomfort is coming, they often show less distress and better emotional regulation.
Explore This (Optional)! For this link to an Educational Games interactive game based on Pavlov’s experiments. Can you train the dog to show a conditioned response?
3 Operant Conditioning
Operant conditioning involves training animals to perform behaviors that operate on or affect the environment. Whether the animal repeats a behavior depends directly on the consequences that follow the behavior.
In general, great intelligence is not needed for operant conditioning. Instead, the process relies on the law of effect: when a reward immediately follows a behavior, that behavior becomes more likely to occur again.
Imagine placing a cat in a box with a gate and a fish on the other side. The gate opens if the cat hits a lever. Over time, the cat learns to press the lever through trial and error—not because it understands how the mechanism works, but because the behavior consistently produces a reward.
Edward Thorndike (1898) proposed that this learning process is similar to evolution, where behaviors that lead to favorable outcomes are “selected” and strengthened by their consequences.
There are four critical terms to understand in the content of operant conditioning:
- Reinforcement: Increases the likelihood of a behavior.
- Punishment: Decreases the likelihood of a behavior.
- Positive: Presentation of a stimulus.
- Negative: Removal of a stimulus.
These concepts combined to form the four distinct types of consequences in operant conditioning.
| Type | Description |
|---|---|
| Positive Reinforcement | Presenting a pleasant stimulus to increase behavior (e.g., giving a treat). |
| Negative Reinforcement | Removing an unpleasant stimulus to increase behavior (e.g., taking aspirin for a headache). |
| Positive Punishment | Presenting an unpleasant stimulus to decrease behavior (e.g., a speeding ticket). |
| Negative Punishment | Removing a pleasant stimulus to decrease behavior (e.g., taking away video games). |
Take NOTE! A common misunderstanding of negative reinforcement is equating it with punishment. Negative reinforcement, in the context of operant conditioning, actually involves increasing a behavior by removing an undesirable stimulus.
These concepts have several real-world applications, such as dog training as shown in the Figure below.
As with classical conditioning, animals can learn to value conditioned stimuli used as reinforcers or punishers. For example, a dog might first associate praise with food and then come to associate sitting with praise. Similarly, humans often work for money, which is a conditioned reinforcer; it holds value because it can be exchanged for things we find rewarding.
👶 Parenting Implications: There is ongoing debate about spanking as a form of positive punishment. While some studies suggest it can be effective when used calmly and infrequently, broader research indicates that it may strain the parent–child relationship and increase the risk of fear or aggression, especially when the punishment is associated with the caregiver. In other words, positive punishment may be effective in the short term but harmful in the long term. An alternative is to use positive reinforcement to shape behavior. For example, praising your child for sharing can reinforce pro-social behavior. Reinforcement communicates what behaviors are desired, while punishment may only suppress behavior temporarily. Note, however, that it is important for the parent not to praise all behavior; they must selectively praise only the desired behavior. An example of negative reinforcement is reducing nagging after a child completes their homework unprompted. In this case, the child learns that by doing the desired behavior (homework), they can remove an unpleasant outcome (nagging).
3.1 Extinction, Shaping, and Schedules of Reinforcement
If the reinforcement or punishment in response to a behavior is discontinued, the animal will eventually unlearn the operant conditioning. This is called extinction. Shaping is a technique in which only variations of a behavior that move closer to the desired behavior are reinforced. Shaping helps develop new behaviors by reinforcing successive approximations.
Researchers have also studied the consequences and effectiveness of different schedules of reinforcement. The four types of schedules are summarized in the table below:
| Reinforcement Schedule | Description | Result | Example |
|---|---|---|---|
| Fixed interval | Reinforcement is delivered at predictable time intervals (e.g., after 5, 10, 15, and 20 minutes). | Moderate response rate with significant pauses after reinforcement | Checking the mailbox after the regular delivery time |
| Variable interval | Reinforcement is delivered at unpredictable time intervals (e.g., after 5, 7, 10, and 20 minutes). | Moderate yet steady response rate | Checking Facebook for new comments or likes |
| Fixed ratio | Reinforcement is delivered after a predictable number of responses (e.g., after 2, 4, 6, and 8 responses). | High response rate with pauses after reinforcement | A customer gets a free drink after buying 10 coffees |
| Variable ratio | Reinforcement is delivered after an unpredictable number of responses (e.g., after 1, 4, 5, and 9 responses). | High and steady response rate | Gambling |
These schedules are associated with different levels of effectiveness, as summarized in the figure below.
Among the various reinforcement schedules, variable ratio schedules are the most resistant to extinction. In a variable ratio schedule, reinforcement is delivered after an unpredictable number of responses. This unpredictability makes the behavior highly persistent, as individuals continue the behavior in anticipation that the next response may yield a reward.
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📱 Clinical Insight: Both gambling and social media platforms rely on variable ratio reinforcement—rewards (like betting to win money or posting images/comments to receive likes) are delivered after an unpredictable number of actions. This schedule is known to produce high rates of persistent behavior because users never know when the next reward is coming. The uncertainty keeps people playing or posting—making these platforms especially habit-forming and resistant to extinction.
🎥 Watch This: Are companies using conditioning principles to manipulate consumers? Yes! Follow this link to a YouTube video where you’ll learn more.
3.2 Predictability and Learned Helplessness
In classical conditioning, we discussed the importance of temporal proximity between a stimulus and a reinforcement (or punishment). In operant conditioning, predictability is even more crucial. The animal must be able to reliably anticipate the consequence of its behavior.
In a striking demonstration of this principle, Maier and Seligman (1976) conducted an experiment involving two dogs subjected to electric shocks. One dog could escape the shock by pressing a panel with its nose. The other dog, however, was yoked to the first—meaning it received shocks at the same time but had no control over stopping them. Pressing the panel had no effect.
In the second phase of the experiment, both dogs were placed in a new setting where they could escape shock by jumping to a safe platform. The first dog quickly learned to escape. The second dog, having learned that its actions were ineffective, made no attempt to escape—instead lying down and accepting the shock. This behavior is known as learned helplessness, a condition in which an animal fails to act to escape from a situation due to a history of uncontrollable outcomes.
🧠 Consider the Following: Research suggests that humans can also fall victim to learned helplessness. Can you think of situations where people might give up because they believe they are unable to escape negative outcomes?
4 Cognitive Learning
Not all learning relies on direct experience or conditioning. Cognitive learning involves acquiring new knowledge, skills, or behaviors through mental processes such as observation, reasoning, memory, and problem-solving. This type of learning highlights the role of internal thought rather than simple stimulus–response pairings. Key forms of cognitive learning include:
Cognitive Maps: These are mental representations of physical spaces or environments. For example, in classic studies, rats placed in a maze were able to find the shortest route to a reward even after the route was changed, suggesting that they had formed a mental map of the maze rather than simply learning through trial and error.
Insight Learning: This occurs when a solution to a problem suddenly becomes clear, without trial-and-error behavior. Psychologist Wolfgang Köhler demonstrated this with chimpanzees who figured out how to use tools to reach bananas, not through gradual reinforcement, but through sudden comprehension—often described as an “aha!” moment.
Abstract Learning: Involves understanding rules or principles that go beyond specific examples. For instance, recognizing that “same” or “different” applies across various objects, regardless of their appearance. This type of learning is important in categorization, language, and reasoning tasks.
Observational Learning: A powerful form of cognitive learning introduced by Albert Bandura, observational learning occurs when individuals acquire new behaviors simply by watching others. It involves:
- Modeling: The process of imitating behaviors demonstrated by a role model.
- Vicarious reinforcement: Learning by observing the consequences of another person’s actions.
- Prior beliefs and expectations: These influence what we pay attention to and what behaviors we choose to imitate.
🧠 Clinical Insight: Observational learning plays a major role in the development of social behaviors—both positive and negative. For example, children exposed to aggressive models (e.g., in the famous Bobo doll experiment) are more likely to imitate aggression, especially if the model was rewarded. This has important implications for parenting, education, and media exposure.
5 Neural Basis of Learning
Learning involves lasting changes in the brain, a phenomenon known as neuroplasticity. When we learn something new—whether it’s a behavior, fact, or skill—neural connections are strengthened, weakened, or newly formed. One of the key biological mechanisms underlying this process is long-term potentiation (LTP), which refers to a long-lasting increase in synaptic strength between two neurons following repeated stimulation. LTP is considered one of the primary cellular mechanisms for learning and memory and is especially prominent in the hippocampus, a brain region critical for encoding new experiences and forming spatial maps.
Another essential player in learning is the neurotransmitter dopamine, which plays a central role in reinforcement learning. Dopamine helps the brain track rewards and signal when outcomes differ from expectations—a process known as a reward prediction error. This feedback mechanism supports learning by reinforcing behaviors that lead to positive outcomes. Structures like the ventral tegmental area (VTA) and nucleus accumbens are key components of this dopamine-based reward system.
Other brain regions also support different types of learning. The prefrontal cortex is involved in goal-directed learning, decision-making, and working memory, allowing us to plan, evaluate outcomes, and adjust behavior. Meanwhile, the mirror neuron system, located in parts of the frontal and parietal lobes, is thought to support observational learning by activating both when we perform an action and when we watch others do the same. Together, these neural systems highlight that learning is not just a psychological process—but a deeply biological one, rooted in changes in brain chemistry, structure, and connectivity.
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